Electronic digital computer



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ELECTRONIC DIGITAL. COMPUTER Filed Nov. 12, 1952 13 Sheets-Sheet 13 INVENToR. /l/a l. mm/:0M

ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER PhilV A. Adamson, san Gabriel, and Howard L. Engel and Eldred C. Nelson, Los Angeles, Calif., assgnors,

ares Pate by mesne assignments, to Hughes Aircraft Company,

This invention relates to an electronic digital computer and, more particularly, to an electronic v digital Computer for performing arithmetic operations in accordance with binary-coded instructions upon binary-coded numbers, `the computer being completely mechanized in accordance with diagrammatic notation or Boolean algebraic equations.

It has been well established that electronic digital computers may be designed mos-t efficiently when the computations are performed in a binary-coded system of notation. One'reason for this is that it has been found that the most reliable, inherently digital, electronic element is a two-stable-state device, such as a bistable multivibrator or flip-flop. Electronic devices having more than two states, such as multielectrode tubes for storing decimal digits, have not been reduced to economical and efficient practice. Once it is recognized that the electronic two-state device is the most practical, then it can be readily shown that these two-state devices may be utilized most economically if they are incorporated into a binarycoded system.

In general, any machine, whether electronic or. not, which uses two-state devices and signals can be analyzed inV terms of diagrammatic notation, such as Boolean algebra. In Boolean algebra, the variables or algebraic quantities have only two vvalues or states, conveniently referred to as one and zero (1, or as on and oli These values may be represented in an electrical system by two voltages, where according to one convention, the higher of the two voltages may be considered as the l or on voltage and the lower of the two voltages as the 0 or off voltage. Where the values are represented by voltages, the system is herein referred to as a voltage-level system, as distinguished from a pulse system where, according to one convention, the presence of a positive or negative pulse represents l and the absence of a pulse represents 0,

For each Boolean algebraic variable or function, such as A, there is a complementary variable or function where has the values of 1" and 0 when A has the values of "0 and 1, respectively. Each pair of complementary variables may be provided by a hip-flop, where one output terminal or anode connection of the ip-op maybe considered as the A output and the other output terminal considered as the output. Thus, when the flipflop is on, A is 1 and V is 0, whereas when the flipflop is cih A is 0 and is 1.

Any Boolean algebraic function may be defined in terms of k'logical additions and logical multiplications. Logical addition may also be referred to hereinY as an or function or operation and is represented as the Vsum of two or more variables. For example, f(A,B)=VAl-B represents the vor function of A and B and is defined as meaning that f(A,B) is 1, when A is l, or B is 1, or A and B are l. Thus, the plus sign between variables indicates an orf relationship. Logical multiplication may also be referred to herein as an and function or operation and is represented as the product of two or more variables. For example, f(A,B)=A.B represents the and function of A and B, and is defined as meaning that f(A,B) is 1 only when both A and B are l. Thus,

- the dot between the variables indicates an and relationship.

VI-n'a voltage-level system, the and function provides an output voltage representing 1 only when all variables in the and function are at the voltage level corresponding to l. In a pulse system, on the other hand, the and function may be considered as a coincidence function where a pulse, representing l, is produced only when there is a coincidence of input pulses representing the variables. Similarly, the or functions can be interpreted for voltage level and pulse systems.

Consider now a complete Boolean algebraic function comprising both and and or functions:

The function f(A,B,C,D) is 1 when: A is 1 and B, C, and D are 0; or AA is 0 and B, C, and D are l; or A and B are 0v and C and Dare l. Such a function is typical vof the signal and mechanization functions which are explained in detail below, Where the basic rules for Boolean algebraic manipulation are considered with respect to specific circuits.

For each of the basic functions of logical addition and logical multiplication, there are basic electrical circuits referred to in the art as and circuits and or circuits, respectively. Examples of such circuits are shown on pages 37 to 45 of High-Speed Computing Devices by Engineering Research Associates, published in 1950 by McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and London, and in an article entitled Diode Coincidence and Mixing Circuits in Digital Computers by Tung Chang Chen, in volume 38 of the Proceedings of thelnstitute of Radio Engineersfon pagesV 511 through 514. In addiytion,"specific diode and and or circuitsas Well as clock pulse circuits are considered in detail in this specication.

` For every type of electrical and and or circuit, there are basic rules of mechanization, where mechanization means the electrical connections which are to be vmade -in order that the electrical circuit produce signals representative of the desired Boolean algebraic function. For example, if it is desired to use two cathode-follower stages havingV a common cathode load circuit as an or circuit in order to produce an output signal representative of the Booleanfunction f(A,B)=A-l-B, signals representative lof A and B are applied to the grids of the cathode-follower stages, respectively. In this manner, a 1 representing signal is produced across the common cathode load when either A or B is 1. Similar mechanizations for diode and and or circuits are explained in detail in this specification.

One of the earliest applications of Boolean algebra to practical circuit design was inthe eld o-f telephone switching, where the electromagneticrelay is the basic bistable device. The extensive work which has been done in analyzing relay switching circuits is summarized in a book entitled The Design of Switching Circuits by William Keister,` Alistair E. Ritchie, and Seth H. Washburn, published by D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1951.

Boolean algebra-has also been utilized in the analysis tion generating circuits, counter circuits, rectifier circuits, coding systems, binary adders, accumulators, and multipliers is found in Synthesis of Electronic Computing and Control Circuits by the Stai of the Computation Laboratory, published in -1951 by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

It will be noted, however, that none of the above references shows, and that none of the existing electronic digital computers comprises, a system completely mechanized in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations, where al1 of the operating instructions, timing instructions, and arithmetic routines are specified in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations.

The present invention discloses an electronic calculator` for performing mathematical operations, in accordance.

with binary input instructions, upon binary numbers and is completely mechanized in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations. All instructions, such as orders to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, are specified in accordance with a first set of Boolean algebraic equations which may be referred to as control functions, and all nstructions are carried out by means of a logical network which includes a plurality of logical and and or circuits mechanized in accordance with a second set of Boolean algebraic equations. f

A logically mechanized system such as is provided by the present invention has many advantages over prior systems. Although it is possible to simplify specific logicall switching circuits and logical computing circuits within prior art systems, the systems themselves cannot be analyzed so as to determine the most economical use of the specific logical circuits employed. In a speciiic case, this may mean that a iiip-op in the arithmetic unit of a prior art computer will have only one function, whereas, in the present invention, such a flip-Hop may be utilized to the full extent indicated to be possiblein the analysis of the system algebra. As a result, many of the components of the system of the present invention may be utilized on a time-sharing basis to perform more than one function.

A computer, which may be designed entirely according to logical equations, such as is provided by the present invention, is readily incorporated into amore complicated system, since the computer system algebra indicates how external signals should be applied to it. This means that the electronic computer provided by the present invention may be built initially as an independent unit, such as a desk calculator, and then incorporated into a complete computer system for performing the computation of more complicated problems. p

The versatility of an embodiment of the present in vention is' limited only by the versatility of its defining Boolean algebra. Thus, an arithmetic unit based upon principles of the present invention can be modified with a minimum of circuitry to perform other operations in addition to the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For example, logical circuits may be included for various transfer operations in order to facilitate the sequencing or programming of arithmetic operations. An illustrative case is a transfer circuit for transferring the product resulting from a multiplication to a multiplier or multiplicand position, such thatl it may be utilized in a subsequent multiplication; Such a transfer operation makes it possible to multiply a series of numbers with considerable speed without necessitating an extra register to vstore numbers. In the programmed electronic computer described in the above co'- pending application, the arithmetic unit of this invention is'modiied to include afunction table operation which reqnires that the arithmetic unit perform a logical comparlson.

Another contribution of the present invention results from the fact that mechanization functions may be directly interpreted as structure. It is possible, in view of this fact, to separate the problem of computer design into two principal parts, one being the derivation of the basic equations have been formulated, engineering personnel,l

specializing in the circuit techniques required to mechanize the input functions, design the basic circuit components and modify the basic algebraic equations in order to minimize the power required for operation, provide the most reliable operation, and insure economy inequipment cost. In a specific way, this may mean that the specialists will study a particular business accounting problem and put it into terms of Boolean algebraic logic. The engineering personnel, then, having selected the basic logical circuits to be utilized, will modify these equations in order to provide an efficient machine. The resulting logical circuits may be mechanized by technicians in accordance with basic mechanization rules which are I dependent'upon the particular type of logical circuits utilized. These mechanization rules are fully explained hereinafter.

After the computer has been constructed, it may be tested in accordance with the modified Boolean algebraic equations provided by the engineering personnel. Thus, technicians'knowing only the simplest mechanization rules may check each of the logical circuits of the computer in orderto determine whether the logical circuits provide output signals specified by the modified logical equations. In addition, the computer may be checked for errors during its operation by providing a test program which is introduced into the system algebra. Thus, extremely simple service and error checking techniques can bc specified for a very complicated computer system constructed'in accordance with the principles of the present invention. v Another feature of the present invention is its adaptability'to miniaturization techniques. The logical andf and or circuits utilized may comprise germanium diodes which occupy very little space. Thus, all of the logical circuits may be mechanized with a minimum of space consuming components. Moreover, since the diodes require a minimum of operating power, the storage devices which are utilized to supply signals for operating the logical circuits may also be miniaturized. From this discussion, it should be apparent, moreover, that the power required is minimized as thetotal circuit is miniaturized. i Although'the principles of the present invention may be most effectively utilized in solving problems presented in a straight binary code, problems in other codes, such vas binary-coded decimal or straight decimal may be solved if appropriate conversions are mechanized into the system. either as programs or as specific operations.

`The principles of the present invention are applicable to either a serial or a parallel system. In the serial system; arithmetic operations are performed upon binary numbers which are coded in time, that is, each binary digit of a number follows a preceding digit after a predetermined Vtime corresponding to a binary digit time. Inthe parallel system the binary numbers are coded in space, that is, there is a different position for each binary digit. Where miniaturization and minimization of poweris of the utmost mportance, the serial system is preferred, since the time sharing inherent in the serial system makes it possible to use the same logical circuits for a great number of functions. On the other hand, where speed of operation is of the utmost importance, the parallel system is preferred, since it is approximately n times as vfast as the serial system, where n is equal to the number of digits n Ithe binary numbers to be operated upon. l

Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an electronic binary computer which is completely a first set of Boolean algebraic equations for providing control functions corresponding to the arithmetic operations, respectively, and being mechanized in accordance with a second set of Boolean algebraic equations for carrying out the operations.

An additional object of the present invention is to provide an electronic computing system mechanized entirely in accordance with Boolean system algebra, the system utilizing a minimum of specific logical circuits asigindicated to be required bythe system'algebra.

A further object of the present invention is to provide an electronic computer which is designed entirely according to logical equations and is readily incorporated into a more complicated computer system ina 'manner indicated by the logical equations.

Still another object of the vpresent `invention is to provide an electronic binary calculator which is defined by Boolean algebraic equations, the versatility of the calculator being limited only bythe capacity of the defining Boolean algebra itself.

Still an additional object of the present invention is to provide a logically-designed electronic calculator which is readily adaptable to miniaturizationtechniques.

A still further object of the present invention is to pro- `vide a`logica'lly-designed binary computer which is economical to construct and to operate.

It is also another object of the present invention to pron'vide a logically-designed vcomputer which may be mecha- Enized for a particular problem in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations, provided by specialists, said equations being modified in accordance with the practical considera- "tions provided by engineering'personnel.

Itis also an object of the present invention to provide -a logically-designed electronic binary computer which may be conveniently checked for errors in accordance with the system algebra. i

It is yet another object of Ithe present invention to Vprovide a serial binary arithmetic unit which is completely mechanized in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations.

It is yet a further object of the present invention to provide a parallel binary arithmetic unit which is completely mechanized in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations.

The novel features which are believed yto be characteristic of the invention, both as yto its organization and method of operation, together with ,further objects and advantages thereof, will be better understood from the following description considered in connection with the accompanyingv drawings, in which several embodiments of the inventionv are illustrated by way of examples. It is to be eirpressly understood, however, that the drawings are for the purpose of illustration and description only and are not intended las a definition of the limits of the invention.

Fig. 1 is a block diagram of the basic embodiment of :the present invention;

Fig. 2 is a block diagram of a serial arithmetic system; l Fig. 2a is a block diagram of the addition and subtraction Ycircuitry of the serial varithmetic system shown in Fig. 2; v l

Fig, .2b is a block diagram of the multiplication circuitry of the serial arithmetic system shown inFig. 2;

Fig. 2cA is a block diagram of the division circuitry of the Yserialarithmetic system shown in Fig. 2;

Fig 2d .is a 'block diagram of the transfer circuitry-o the serial varithmeticisystem' shown in Fig. 2;

Fig. 3a is a composite diagram of the waveforms of sig- .nals appearing atV various'p'oints inthe embodiment of )Fig during the operations of addition and subtraction; 1-iig. 3b isacomposite-diagrammi the waveforms of `Numbers,` and Division of Binary Numbers.

Asignals appearing at various points in the embodiment of Fig. 2 during the operation of multiplication;

Fig; 3c Vis a composite diagram of the waveforms of signals appearing at various points in the embodiment of Fig. 2 during the operation of division;

Figs. 4a and 4b are .parts of the schematic diagram of one form of the control means shown in Fig. 2;

Figs. 5a, 5b, and 5c `are parts of a schematic diagram illustrating the complete logical circuitry of the serial arithmetic system shown in Fig. 2;4

Fig. 6 is a schematic diagram of a tWo-stable-state device or flip-flop which may be utilized in the embodiments of the present invention;

Figs. 7a and 7b are schematic diagrams illustrative of and and or circuits suitable for use in embodiments of the present invention;

Figs. 7c and 7d are schematic diagrams illustrative of combined clock pulse and or circuits suitable for use in. Yembodiments of the present invention;

Fig. 8 is a schematic diagram of a complementing circuit which may be utilized in the logical circuitry shown in Figs. 5a, 5b, and 5c; and

Fig. 9 is a block diagram .of a parallel arithmetic system.

Referring now to Fig. l, there is shown an embodiment of an electronic binary computer, according to this invention, which is completely mechanized in accordance with Boolean algebraic equations. The computer shown inA Fig. l comprises: control means 100, responsive to electrical signals representative of operations to be performed, for producing electrical binary control signals corresponding to these operations, respectively; a plurality of storage registers A, B, and C for storing complementary sets of electrical signals representative of binary numbers to be operated upon; and logical network means 200 responsive to the binary control signals and to Ythe complementary sets of binary number signals for producing electrical binary output signals representative, respectively, of the results of different operations upon the binary numbers.

Inan illustrative utilization of the calculator shown in Fig. 1, register A stores the addend, subtrahend, multiplicand, and the *divisor for the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively; register B stores the augend, minuend, and dividend for the operations of addition, subtraction, and division, respectively; and register C stores the multiplier for the operation of multiplication. Registers A, B, and C may also be used to` store the results of the operation. For example, register B may store' sum, difference, and product; and register C the quotient, as indicated in Fig. sl.

Since the complementary binary control signals produced by the control means are representative of operations, it is convenient to lexpress them as abbreviations of the corresponding operations. Thus, control means producesk signals Add and Add for the operation of addition, Subt and Subt, for the operation of subtraction, Mult and Mult for the operation of multiplication, Div

and 5i-v for the' operation of division, Tba and ifa' for the operation of transferring Vsignals in register B to register A, Tea and T cr-z for the operation of transferring signals in register C to register A, and Oper and Oper for any operation.

Before considering the details of the mechanization functions, it is necessary tty-understand the principles finvolved in' binary ,computation itself, since Vmost of the mechanization functions are derived either directly or indirectly from binary arithmetic functions. These principles are considered under the headings Addition and Sub-traction of Binary Numbers, Multiplication of Binary The notation which is utilized to represent thegbinary numbers is also utilized below to represent correspondilig assenze signals. Thus, the variable al, which is considered in addition and subtraction, is utilized later to represent a 'signal series which appears in the adder-subtracter unit described below.

`ADDITION SUBTRACTION OF BINARY i NUMBERS Let us consider the addition of two binary numbers:

a=2 a,-.2""(R+1) and b :ingr-(n+1) wherej represents the digit position or place of the binary digits, n the number of binary digits, and R the number of binary digits to the right of the radix point. Consider, for example, the binary equivalents a and b of the decimal numbers 1.75 and 2.5:

Substituting the binary coeicients for a, and b1, a and b are then written as:

or, expressed in the usual convention where the least significant digits appear at the right and higher place digits appear in succession to the left, these are written as: a=l.l1 and b=l0.l. It should be noted that where n, the total number of digits, includes a sign digit, the summation for the number is made from 1 to (n1), since the sign digit is not a binary coefiicient. Y

In the addition of binary numbers, the digits in-the same place and the carry from the preceding place are added. Thus, when a and b are added, the sum for each place is a function of the variables: aj, bj, and q l, where ,q l represents a carry from a preceding place; and cj, representing a carry to the next place, is a function of the same variables. The sum and carry functions are conveniently represented as:

respectively. Consider, then, the sum of a=1.11 and b=10.1:

a 001. 11 (1. 75) b 010. (2. 5) c* 111. 0

Sum 100. 01 (4. 25)

The sum in the rst place is fs(a1,b1)=fs(1,0)=1, and the positive carry to the next place, cp, is

f(ar,b1)=fc(1.0)=0

the sum inthe second place is fs(a2,b2,c1)r=f,(1,1,0)=0, and the carry to the next place, cgi', is

c(l12bz:`1)=fc(1l1.0)=1

the sum in the third place is fs(1,0,1)=0, and c3+=f(1,0,1)=1

the sum in the fourth place is fs(0,1,1)=0 and c4+=fc(0,1,1)=1

the sum in the fth place is f,(0,0,1)=1.

Consider now the table below, where all eight of the possible combinations of digits in the same place are listed: v

Table I a5 b; c1| Sum c# From this table, the general Boolean algebraic rules for sum and positive carry to the next place (cf) are found to be:

there is a sum of 1 when one variable in a place is l and the others are 0, or when all three variables in a place are l. Thus, a,.b ,.cj 1, aj.,b.cj 1, and aj.b,.c, 1, are l, respectively, when only a3 is l, when only b, is l, and when only q 'l is 1; and aj.b,.c, 1 is 1 when all of the variables are 1.

The positive' carry function may be interpreted as follows: There is a carry to the (j+1)st place from the J'th place if there are two or more binary digits in the ith place. Thus, when a, and b, are 1, or a, and c, 1 are 1 or b, and q l are 1, there is a carry to the (i+1)st place.

In a similar manner, the Boolean lalgebraic functions for subtraction may be derived from the table below, where c," represents a negative carry to the next place and Diff. represents the difference for the subtraction: bf-q.

Table Il al b1 cr-r D111. ci-

These are:

The derivation of these functions is fully explained in the above-mentioned copendng application to Nelson, Serial No. 189,318. It will be noted that the function for the difference is the same as the function for the sum above. Interpretation of the difference function, therefore, is deemed unnecessary. The carry c,- for subtraction' is l when a, is 1 and b, is 0, or when Q is 1 and b, is 0, or when both a, and 1:1 1 are 1.

The positive and negative carry functions above may be combined by introducing a binary variable which has a value of 1 when a negative carry functions is required and has a complementary Pvalue of 1 when a positive carry is required. Assuming then that S is this variable, the combined carry function may then be written as: t

tive carry, the combined positive and negative carry function may be reduced to:

` Hereinafter the variable b will be utilized to represent lthe augend or minuend, and the variable a will be utilized to represent the addend or subtrahend. Assuming this convention, then, it will be noted that there are sixteen situations which may arise in the addition and subtraction ofthe binary numbers u and b. Of these, eight are addition and eight `are subtraction problems. However, since each addition problem may also be considered as a subtraction problem, it is unnecessary to. consider both. For example, b-w can be considered as either b+(a) or b-a. Analysis of the problem ba, therefore, will be considered as covering either: bi-(-a) or b -a.

Of the eight situations which are considered, four occur when b is greater than a(b for the sign combinations of b and a. i.e.: b-l-a; b-a; -b-l-a; and -b-a. The remaining four situations occur when b is less than a for the same sign combinations above. Aproblem is set forth `rbelow'which includes all of the eight situations, except:

It will be noted that the most significant binary digits of the addends and subtrahends appearing .in the problems herein considered represent the sign, where 1 indicates a negative number and a positive number. The signs of the augends and rninuends are indicated in the same' manner. Where the augend or minuend is negative, however, the convention herein adopted is to express the number as its 0s complement explained below. It will be noted in the problems that are considered that the binary sign digits of the addend and subtrahend are eliminated, although the augend sign digit is included. This, it will be shown, is necessary in order to obtain negative augends which are 0s complements with a sign digit of l.

The superscripts inthe problems are utilized to designate the operants andare not to be confused with the subscripts which designate `the place of the binary digits. Thus, a5 is the fifth addend and is not the fth digit of a binary number a. Each of the operants, then, comprises a series of binary digits and, thus, can Abe written as: ajN,

where N represents the number of the operant and j a binary digit position.

I-t will be observed that initially the augend is O, or b=0. The first operation then is to add -a0 to 0 or to Vsubtract a0 from 0.v In leithercase, the negative carry function is utilized where, as above,

In subtracting a0 from 0, we obtain what is known asA the 0s or v s complemento-fa. This may also be foundby changingeach of the digits of a to its comple- 'ment"`(the l's complement of a), and then adding l to the'least significant place.' Thev 0s compler'nent,ma y =also`befound by recording successive digits of the number,

r i l0 'starting'from the least significant digit, until the rst 1'sj is recorded and thereafter recording in succession the complements of the higher placed digits. The first sum then is the 0s complement of a and includes a sign digit in the extreme left` hand place indicating that the sum is negative and complemented. Since for the OScom plementing operation b is 0, the algebraic functions above Sum 00001011011001.0 +729 Since b a, the sum shows a change of sign; that is, the sign digit changesfrom a l to a 0. It should be noted that the positive carry function was utilized for this operation. The positive carry is utilized wherever the resulting sign between b and a is positive. Thus, the positive carry is utilized for the operation b-(a).

The remaining operations are outlined below where the particular situation involved is indicated to the left of the y operation:

+b-a(b a) ai 000011011011010 -437 +b3 00000100100100. 0 +292 +ba(b a) 1101100111110.0 -6974 -b 100101111001100 -6682 -b+a(b a) +114 211001011110110 +6523 b5 11111101100001.0 -159 b-ll(b a) -415 0000001111001-0 '-121 Since -b6 is a negative number in its 0s complemented form, it may be desirable to convert it to an absolute value plus sign. This is done by taking the 0s complevment of -bs without the sign digit of 1 or by subtracting -b6, without the sign digit of 1, from 0 in the manner explained above. This operation appears as follows:

b7 000000000000000() a7=b 111110111010000 -280 Y' a8=|b1 roaoomooonoono |2801 MULTIPLICATION OF BINARY NUMBERS YMultiplication is performed by a series of additions or subtractions depending upon the product of the signs of the multiplicand and thev multiplier and upon the convention adopted for representing the product. Since most probv lems involve a mixture of multiplications, additions, and

Assuming this convention, then, when theproduct is negative, as indicated by opposite signals for the multiplier and multiplicand, the multiplication is performed by a.

assalto series of subtractions; whereas, if the product is positive, as indicated by similar signals for the multiplier and multiplicand, then the multplication is performed by a series of additions. The operation producing a negative product is herein referred to as negative multiplication, whereas that producing a positive product is herein referred to as positive multiplication. 4

' Each addition or subtraction is made or not made in accordance with the corresponding multiplier digit, herein referred to as m5. When m, is 1, the multiplicand is added or subtracted to the partial product which is initially when m, is 0, no addition or subtraction is performed or O is added to the partial product.

In each addition of the multiplicand, in actordance with a multiplier digit mj, the multiplicand is shifted j-l digitpositions to the left with respect to the original partial product. If the multiplication is initiated by adding or subtracting the multiplicand in accordance with the first Vmultiplier digit m1,v then there is no shift for the first addition. Assuming that successive additions or subtractions are made in accordance with the successively higher digits of the multiplier, then, after each addition or subtraction the multiplicand is shifted one digit position to the left with respect to the partial product or the partial product is shifted one digit position to the right with respect to the multiplicand. On the other hand, it may be convenient to initiate multiplication by adding the multiplicand in accordance with the highest place multiplier digit, m where mn is the multiplier sign digit. In this case, in the first addition the multiplicand is considered as shifted n-l places to the left of the first partial product -(which is 0), and after each addition, the multiplicand is shifted one place to the right with respect to the partial product or the partial product is shifted one place to the left with respect to the multiplicand.

There are fourl multiplication situations which are of interest, corresponding to four sign combinations of multiplier and multiplicand. Of these, only two, illustrative of positive and negative multiplication, are considered. In the first problem presented below, the multiplicand is the final sum of the addition and subtraction problem above.

Since the product in the first problem is positive, the multiplication is performed by a series of additions, where the partial products are considered as augends b and the multiplicand appears as a series of addends a.

It will be noted in the problem below the Os are included in both the multiplicand and multiplier to the vright of the radix point, although they have been eliminated n the actual problem for simplicity. 'Ihe Os have been included so that the problem below corresponds to that considered in the operation of the computer which is described hereinafter, reference being made to Fig. 3b. Since the multiplier in the first problem includes nine Os to the right of the first 1, the multiplicand is not added until the tenth operation when it is considered as operant am. In the second problem there are 13 multiplier zeros and thus the first multiplicand to be added is operant al".

First multiplication problem Multipllcand=1280==1100011000.000000 The second multiplication problem is performed by shift 12 ing the partial product to the right with respect vto the multiplicand. Negative multiplication is also illustrated, since the multiplicand and multiplier have different signs. The second multiplication problem, then, is:

Mu1t1p1icand=Hoezo-010101010101000() Multiplier b1 %=1.1100oo00o000o00 There are two basic approaches to the binary division problem. One is similar to that utilized in the division of decimal numbers where the division is performed by a series of subtractions or additions of the divisor and the partial remainder (initially the dividend), depending upon the signs of the dividend and divisor and the convention adopted for representing the dividend and divisor. The other approach depends upon the fact that a sub. traction which causes an overdraft may be corrected by adding the divisor after the next shift.

For either approach, it is convenient to adopt the convention that a negative dividend is represented as a 0s" complement, whereas a negative divisor is represented as an absolute value plus a negative sign digit of l. Assuming this convention, division, according to the first approach, is performed by a series of subtractions when the dividend is positive, yand by a series of additions when the dividend is negative, regardless of the sign of the divisor. Accordingly, when the dividend is negative the operation is hereinreferred to as negative division; and when the dividend is positive the operation is herein referred to as positive division.

According to the first approach to division, the subtraction or addition of the divisor and partial remainder is not performed or is performed and cancelled if an overdraft would result. Except for one special case in negative division explained belowan overdraft is indicated by a change in the sign digit of the partial re mainder. Thus, when the subtraction or addition would cause a change in the partial remainder sign, no subtraction or addition is performed, a quotient digit of 0 is recorded, and the divisor is shifted to theright with respect to the partial remainder or the partial remainder is shifted to the left with respect to the divisor. Whenever a subtraction or addition -is performed without a change in partial remainder sign, a quotient digit of 1 is recorded.

According to the second approach to binary division, the divisor and the partial remainderI are continuously added or subtracted. If an overdraft occurs, as indicated by a change in the sign of the partial remainder from its original value or the original sign value of the dividend, a quotient digit of 0 is recorded, the divisor Vis shifted Ito the right with respect to the partial remainder or the partial remainder is shifted to the left with respect to the divisor, and the next operation is addition, if the initial operation was subtraction, or is subtraction if the initial operation was addition. Thus, instead of continuously subtracting for positive division, and then correcting an overdraft by adding a divisor, d, without a shift, the divisor d is shifted as though no overdraft occurred, and d is then added to the next operation. This provides the correct partial remainder because, for binary f 13 l numbers, subtracting and adding d and then subtracting d after a shift of one is equivalent to subtracting d and then adding d after a shift of one. In the first case, the operation appears as: -d+dd/2=-d/2, and in the second case, the operation appears as: -d-l-d/ 2=Vd 2, where it will be noted that shifting the binary number d is equivalent to dividing by 2.

Two problems are considered below. In the first, ya negative division is performed in accordance with both the iirst and second approaches above. yIn the second problem, a positive division is performed according to the second approach above. Each operation, and all but the irst digit of the quotient, is numbered. Thus, in the first operation of the rst division problem, the divisor is added and a quotient digit of 1 is entered, the sign digit of 0 having been previously entered. When positive division is performed, according to the first approach, the divisor is added or not added according to whether or not an overdraft would result. This is indicated adjacent to the operation number in the problem below.

In division, according to the second approach, the quotient digit is obtained after an operation and, thus, the numbers designating an operation appear after it is performed. Thus, the number (l) in the rst problem appears below Add, corresponding to the first addition of the divisor. It will also be noted that when division is performed according to the second approach, the dividend and partial remainders are given the designation bN, where N is an operant number, and that the divisor in each of its positions is given the designation aN. This notation yis used in explaining the operation of the computer so that a signal series corresponding to an operant in the problems below is given the same designation.

Division in the illustrative operation of the serial arithmetio system, as described below, is performed according to the second approach and, therefore, a similar notation is not used in connection with the solution to the rst division problem according to the first approach.

In all cases of division, the final sign of the quotient is positive if the dividend and divisor have the same sign, and is negative if the dividend yand divisor have different signs. It will be noted that the divisor sign digit is eliminated from the problems and that unnecessary zeros are vremoved for simplicity.

First division problem Dividend 8190= 10000000000010 00 Divisl 13= 11101 .00000000000A FIRST APPROACH (1) 1 added 1101 In operation (9) above, it will be notedthatthe divisor and partial remainder are added, even though the sign digitv changed to 0. This was donebecause the change of signin this case does not inditiate an overdraft, but

rather that the division has resuited in a quotient with 'no remainder. If the change of sign is considered as the true indication of an overdraft, then the divisor would not be added in operation (9) and the division problem above would continue as below:

(9) 0 not added 11001100 1001100 0 (10) 1 added 1101 1001100 0 (11) 1 addedA 1101 etc.

In this case, the quotient becomes 0100111010111 where there is an error of 1 in the least significant place. The same error occurs if negative 'division' is performed according to the second approach:

SECOND APPROAQH 123450789 0100111010111 -1101 1/1000000000001000 b1 Add 1101 111 (1) 111010 b? Add 1101 z2 (2) 001110 03 Subt 1101 a3 (3) 000010 b1 Subt 1101 a1 (4) 101010 b1 Add 1101 a1 (5) 101110 b Add 1101 a (0) 110110 01 Add 1101 a1 (7) 000110 b? Subt 1101 a1 (8) 110011 01 Add 1101 0 (9) 000000 01 sub1 1101 111 (10) 100110 011 Add 1101 au Second division problem Dividend 030 0100111011000000 Diviser -30 111110.0000000000 SECOND APPROACH 12345078 1010101.00 -11110 x/01001110110.0 b1 Subt 1.1110, 1*

(1) 1101011 bl Add 11110 a?" (2) 0010010 .01 Subt 11110 11 (3) 1101001 b4 Add 11110 al (4) 0001111 0 1 Subt 11110 a1 (5) 1100010 0 Add 11110 ad (6) 0000000 b1 Subt 11110 a7 (7) 1000100 b1 Add 11110 q1 (8) 100010 b1 'It will be noted that in positive division, according to the second approach, the quotient digits are complements of the partial remainder sign digits, whereas Vin negative division, according to the second approach, -the quotient digits are the same as the sign digits of the partial remainders The "rules for division, according to the"secondCS1);v 

